Istanbul, May 29, 1453. The day Constantinople fell, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire and the rise of the Ottoman Empire under the leadership of Mehmed II, known as Mehmed the Conqueror.
Born on March 30, 1432, in Edirne, Mehmed spent his childhood in the palace, honing his skills with a sword. At 11, he was sent to Amasya to learn governance under carefully chosen advisors.
His father, Sultan Murad II, had waged numerous campaigns against the West and Crusaders, but in 1444, he couldn't prevent a second incursion into Ottoman territory. Leaving young Mehmed in the capital, Sultan Murad went to face the enemy.
In Varna, on the coast of the Black Sea, the Ottoman army crushed the Western forces. While victory celebrations echoed in Edirne, Sultan Murad surprisingly announced that he was leaving the throne to Mehmed. The young Sultan knew he lacked experience, and understood his father should be leading the army against the impending threat. However, Sultan Mehmed wrote a letter, demanding his father to return to the battlefield, and together they won the war.
Then, in February 1451, Sultan Murad passed away, leaving the throne firmly in young Mehmed's hands. With unclear succession customs at the time, Mehmed ensured no joint rule with his brother, resorting to a controversial act of fratricide.
Sultan Mehmed sought to elevate the Ottoman Empire to a global power. He suppressed internal unrest and turned his gaze westward. The grand city of Constantinople, now in his sights, held both the Prophet's praise for its future conqueror and a strategic advantage.
He commissioned a fortress on the European side of the Bosphorus to control ships entering from the Black Sea - a declaration of war on Constantinople. Panic spread among the Byzantine populace.
On April 6, 1453, massive cannons, crafted by skilled engineers in Edirne, arrived. While Venice and Hungary renewed agreements with Mehmed, Byzantine King Constantine rejected peace terms, prompting the Ottoman forces to breach the age-old walls and seize the city.
With the fall of Constantinople, Byzantium crumbled, and the Roman Empire faded into history. This event symbolized the transition from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance, and Mehmed the Conqueror swiftly ascended as one of the most prominent emperors in the Islamic world.
After the conquest, he embarked on an ambitious reconstruction project, transforming Istanbul into one of the world's most beautiful cities. The Topkapi Palace was constructed during his reign, and the renowned Grand Bazaar, where approximately 25,000 people worked, was completed.
Later, Mehmed fused the existing administrative system with Byzantine institutions. With Istanbul secured, he launched campaigns to secure the Aegean islands and subdued Moldova.
In Belgrade, Mehmed was wounded, spending his last year in the palace. Then, in 1458, he led the Ottoman army on a campaign to conquer Athens and Greece. He didn't stop there, as by 1460, he had annexed all of Serbia and added Morea to the Ottoman Empire's borders.
Efforts to halt Ottoman expansion by Western powers proved futile. Mehmed's dream was to make the Black Sea a Turkish lake, leading him to conquer the Pontus Greek Empire and incorporate the Candaroglu Beylik in Amasra. By 1475, Crimea was under Ottoman control.
Mehmed prepared for a major campaign towards Europe, with Venice as his target. However, Karamanoglu Bey Uzun Hasan, with Persian support, declared war on the Ottomans, diverting their attention. After defeating Uzun Hasan in Erzincan, Mehmed became the undisputed leader of all of Anatolia.
While dealing with Eastern affairs, Ottoman raiders continued to strike the eastern parts of the Adriatic Sea. Venice was alarmed. Mehmed displayed a masterful ability to strategize both in the East and the West.
Ottoman forces continued to strike Albania, Wallachia, and Hungary, while simultaneously conducting campaigns in Egypt and Syria. The Ottoman army also besieged Rhodes and established dominance over the Black Sea.
For those times, orchestrating campaigns on multiple fronts simultaneously was extraordinary, yet the Ottomans excelled at it.
Expanding the empire exponentially, Mehmed increased Ottoman territories from 900,000 to 2,214,000 square kilometers during his 32-year reign. After his passing, bells tolled for three days in mourning, and even the Pope acknowledged his achievements.
Mehmed had a vision of extending his rule beyond Venice. Ottoman troops landed in Otranto. While Ottoman soldiers marched towards Italy and made incursions into Rome, they also launched campaigns against Egypt and Syria. Simultaneously, they besieged Rhodes and made the Black Sea a Turkish lake.
Though he couldn't realize his dream of a world empire, Mehmed left behind a powerful legacy. His "Conquer lands, not identities" policy reshaped the empire and ensured the preservation of diverse cultures and traditions under Ottoman rule.
Mehmed saw himself as the heir to the Eastern Roman Empire, taking the title of "Caesar of Rome." He had a keen interest in Italian culture and admired Homer's Iliad, believing the conquest of Istanbul was a form of avenging Troy.
Despite opposition, he navigated a complex political landscape, eliminating those who opposed him. His reign marked the beginning of contemporary historiography, and he established a significant library.
Mehmed the Conqueror was a great admirer of philosophy, particularly Aristotle and static philosophy. He was also a talented poet, providing stipends to around 30 poets. It's believed he spoke seven languages.
In 1463, when the Ottomans took Bosnia, Venice was intimidated. Just as Venice was on the verge of falling, Karamanoglu Bey Uzun Hasan declared war on the Ottomans, seeking to challenge Mehmed. After defeating Uzun Hasan in Erzincan, Mehmed released approximately 40,000 prisoners.
Although he dealt with Eastern matters, Ottoman raiders continued to strike the eastern parts of the Adriatic Sea. Venice was alarmed.
Mehmed demonstrated exceptional tactical prowess, considering both East and West in his strategies. Ottoman forces continued to strike Albania, Wallachia, and Hungary, while simultaneously conducting campaigns in Egypt and Syria. The Ottoman army also besieged Rhodes and established dominance over the Black Sea.
Mehmed the Conqueror was preparing for a grand campaign towards Europe, with Venice as his target. In March 1463, when the Ottomans took Bosnia, Venice was intimidated. Just as Venice was on the verge of falling, Karamanoglu Bey Uzun Hasan declared war on the Ottomans, seeking to challenge Mehmed.
With the conquest of Istanbul, Mehmed believed he had taken revenge for Troy. He ordered the execution of Grand Vizier Candarli Halil Pasha, who had constantly opposed the conquest. This event marked Halil Pasha as the first executed Grand Vizier in Ottoman history.
Mehmed's expansionist policies were met with resistance, but he navigated the complex political landscape with skill. His reign marked the beginning of contemporary historiography, and he established a significant library.
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